N France Orientalist Art Focused Primarily on the Subject of

Imitation or depiction of Eastern civilisation

Unknown Venetian artist, The Reception of the Ambassadors in Damascus, 1511, Louvre. The deer with antlers in the foreground is not known ever to have existed in the wild in Syria.

In fine art history, literature and cultural studies, Orientalism is the faux or depiction of aspects in the Eastern earth. These depictions are ordinarily done past writers, designers, and artists from the Western world. In particular, Orientalist painting, depicting more specifically the Middle Eastward,^[1] was one of the many specialisms of 19th-century academic art, and the literature of Western countries took a similar interest in Oriental themes.

Since the publication of Edward Said's Orientalism in 1978, much academic discourse has begun to employ the term "Orientalism" to refer to a full general patronizing Western attitude towards Middle Eastern, Asian, and N African societies. In Said's assay, the West essentializes these societies as static and undeveloped—thereby fabricating a view of Oriental culture that can exist studied, depicted, and reproduced in the service of majestic ability. Implicit in this fabrication, writes Said, is the idea that Western society is developed, rational, flexible, and superior.^[2]This allows Western imagination to see "Eastern" cultures and people every bit both alluring and a threat to Western civilization. ^[3]

Background [edit]

Etymology [edit]

Orientalism refers to the Orient, in reference and opposition to the Occident; the Due east and the West, respectively.^{[4] [5]} The discussion Orient entered the English language language equally the Middle French orient. The root give-and-take oriēns, from the Latin Oriēns, has synonymous denotations: The eastern part of the world; the heaven whence comes the sunday; the east; the ascent sun, etc.; yet the denotation changed as a term of geography.

In the "Monk's Tale" (1375), Geoffrey Chaucer wrote: "That they conquered many regnes grete / In the orient, with many a off-white citee." The term orient refers to countries east of the Mediterranean Sea and Southern Europe. In In Identify of Fear (1952), Aneurin Bevan used an expanded denotation of the Orient that comprehended Eastern asia: "the awakening of the Orient under the impact of Western ideas." Edward Said said that Orientalism "enables the political, economical, cultural and social domination of the W, not just during colonial times, but also in the present."^[vi]

Art [edit]

In art history, the term Orientalism refers to the works of mostly 19th-century Western artists who specialized in Oriental subjects, produced from their travels in Western Asia, during the 19th century. In that time, artists and scholars were described every bit Orientalists, particularly in France, where the dismissive use of the term "Orientalist" was made popular by the art critic Jules-Antoine Castagnary.^[7] Despite such social disdain for a style of representational art, the French Social club of Orientalist Painters was founded in 1893, with Jean-Léon Gérôme as the honorary president;^[8] whereas in Britain, the term Orientalist identified "an artist."^[9]

The formation of the French Orientalist Painters Gild inverse the consciousness of practitioners towards the end of the 19th century, since artists could now see themselves as office of a distinct art movement.^[10] As an art movement, Orientalist painting is generally treated as one of the many branches of 19th-century academic art; however, many different styles of Orientalist art were in prove. Art historians tend to identify two broad types of Orientalist artist: the realists who advisedly painted what they observed and those who imagined Orientalist scenes without ever leaving the studio.^[xi] French painters such as Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863) and Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904) are widely regarded as the leading luminaries of the Orientalist movement.^[12]

Oriental studies [edit]

Professor Thousand. A. Wallin (1811–1852), a Finnish explorer and orientalist, who was remembered for being ane of the starting time Europeans to study and travel in the Center Due east during the 1840s.^{[13] [14] [fifteen]} Portrait of Wallin by R. W. Ekman, 1853.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, the term Orientalist identified a scholar who specialized in the languages and literatures of the Eastern world. Amidst such scholars were officials of the East India Company, who said that the Arab civilisation, the Indian culture, and the Islamic cultures should be studied as equal to the cultures of Europe.^[16] Among such scholars is the philologist William Jones, whose studies of Indo-European languages established modern philology. Company dominion in India favored Orientalism as a technique for developing and maintaining positive relations with the Indians—until the 1820s, when the influence of "anglicists" such equally Thomas Babington Macaulay and John Stuart Manufactory led to the promotion of a Western-style teaching.^[17]

Additionally, Hebraism and Jewish studies gained popularity amidst British and German scholars in the 19th and 20th centuries.^[18] The bookish field of Oriental studies, which comprehended the cultures of the Nearly East and the Far East, became the fields of Asian studies and Centre Eastern studies.

Critical studies [edit]

Edward Said [edit]

In his book Orientalism (1978), cultural critic Edward Said redefines the term Orientalism to describe a pervasive Western tradition—academic and artistic—of prejudiced outsider-interpretations of the Eastern world, which was shaped past the cultural attitudes of European imperialism in the 18th and 19th centuries.^[nineteen] The thesis of Orientalism develops Antonio Gramsci's theory of cultural hegemony, and Michel Foucault's theorisation of soapbox (the knowledge-ability relation) to criticise the scholarly tradition of Oriental studies. Said criticised contemporary scholars who perpetuated the tradition of outsider-interpretation of Arabo-Islamic cultures, especially Bernard Lewis and Fouad Ajami.^{[xx] [21]} Furthermore, Said said that "The idea of representation is a theatrical one: the Orient is the stage on which the whole Eastward is bars",^[22] and that the subject area of learned Orientalists "is not and then much the East itself as the Due east made known, and therefore less fearsome, to the Western reading public".^[23]

In the university, the book Orientalism (1978) became a foundational text of postal service-colonial cultural studies.^[21] The analyses in Said's works are of Orientalism in European literature, especially French literature, and practise not analyse visual fine art and Orientalist painting. In that vein, the art historian Linda Nochlin applied Said'south methods of critical analysis to fine art, "with uneven results".^[24] Other scholars see Orientalist paintings every bit depicting a myth and a fantasy that didn't often correlate with reality.^[25]

There is besides a critical trend inside the Islamic earth. In 2002 it was estimated that in Saudi Arabia lonely some 200 books and 2000 manufactures discussing Orientalism had been penned by local or foreign scholars.^[26]

Soviet scholarship [edit]

From the Bolsháya sovétskaya entsiklopédiya (1951):^[27]

Reflecting the colonialist-racist worldview of the European and American suburbia, from the very commencement bourgeois orientology diametrically opposed the civilizations of the so-called "Westward" with those of the "East" slanderously declaring that Asian peoples are racially junior, somehow primordially backward, incapable of determining their own fates, and that they appeared simply as history'south objects rather than its discipline.

In European architecture and design [edit]

The Moresque style of Renaissance decoration is a European adaptation of the Islamic arabesque that began in the late 15th century and was to be used in some types of work, such as bookbinding, until virtually the present day. Early architectural use of motifs lifted from the Indian subcontinent is known every bit Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture. One of the earliest examples is the façade of Guildhall, London (1788–1789). The way gained momentum in the west with the publication of views of Republic of india by William Hodges, and William and Thomas Daniell from virtually 1795. Examples of "Hindoo" architecture are Sezincote Business firm (c. 1805) in Gloucestershire, built for a nabob returned from Bengal, and the Royal Pavilion in Brighton.

Turquerie, which began as early on as the tardily 15th century, continued until at least the 18th century, and included both the use of "Turkish" styles in the decorative arts, the adoption of Turkish costume at times, and involvement in art depicting the Ottoman Empire itself. Venice, the traditional trading partner of the Ottomans, was the earliest centre, with France becoming more than prominent in the 18th century.

Chinoiserie is the catch-all term for the mode for Chinese themes in decoration in Western Europe, beginning in the belatedly 17th century and peaking in waves, particularly Rococo Chinoiserie, c. 1740–1770. From the Renaissance to the 18th century, Western designers attempted to imitate the technical sophistication of Chinese ceramics with only partial success. Early hints of Chinoiserie appeared in the 17th century in nations with active Eastward India companies: England (the East India Company), Denmark (the Danish Eastward Bharat Visitor), the Netherlands (the Dutch Eastward India Visitor) and France (the French East India Visitor). Tin-glazed pottery made at Delft and other Dutch towns adopted 18-carat Ming-era blue and white porcelain from the early on 17th century. Early ceramic wares made at Meissen and other centers of true porcelain imitated Chinese shapes for dishes, vases and teawares (encounter Chinese export porcelain).

Pleasure pavilions in "Chinese taste" appeared in the formal parterres of late Baroque and Rococo German palaces, and in tile panels at Aranjuez near Madrid. Thomas Chippendale's mahogany tea tables and china cabinets, especially, were embellished with fretwork glazing and railings, c. 1753–70. Sober homages to early Xing scholars' furnishings were too naturalized, equally the tang evolved into a mid-Georgian side table and squared slat-back armchairs that suited English gentlemen as well as Chinese scholars. Not every adaptation of Chinese design principles falls within mainstream "chinoiserie". Chinoiserie media included imitations of lacquer and painted tin (tôle) ware that imitated japanning, early on painted wallpapers in sheets, and ceramic figurines and table ornaments. Small pagodas appeared on chimneypieces and total-sized ones in gardens. Kew has a magnificent Corking Pagoda designed by William Chambers. The Wilhelma (1846) in Stuttgart is an example of Moorish Revival architecture. Leighton House, built for the artist Frederic Leighton, has a conventional facade only elaborate Arab-fashion interiors, including original Islamic tiles and other elements every bit well as Victorian Orientalizing piece of work.

After 1860, Japonism, sparked by the importing of ukiyo-e, became an of import influence in the western arts. In particular, many modern French artists such every bit Claude Monet and Edgar Degas were influenced by the Japanese style. Mary Cassatt, an American creative person who worked in France, used elements of combined patterns, flat planes and shifting perspective of Japanese prints in her own images.^[28] The paintings of James Abbott McNeill Whistler'south The Peacock Room demonstrated how he used aspects of Japanese tradition and are some of the finest works of the genre. California architects Greene and Greene were inspired by Japanese elements in their blueprint of the Hazard House and other buildings.

Egyptian Revival compages became popular in the early and mid-19th century and continued every bit a minor manner into the early 20th century. Moorish Revival architecture began in the early 19th century in the German states and was especially popular for building synagogues. Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture was a genre that arose in the late 19th century in the British Raj.

• 

  Chinesischer Turm (Chinese Belfry) in the Englischer Garten, Munich, Germany: The initial structure was built 1789–1790.

Orientalist art [edit]

Pre-19th century [edit]

Depictions of Islamic "Moors" and " Turks" (imprecisely named Muslim groups of southern Europe, Due north Africa and West Asia) tin can be establish in Medieval, Renaissance, and Baroque art. In Biblical scenes in Early Netherlandish painting, secondary figures, particularly Romans, were given exotic costumes that distantly reflected the clothes of the Near East. The Three Magi in Nascency scenes were an especial focus for this. In full general fine art with Biblical settings would not exist considered as Orientalist except where contemporary or historicist Eye Eastern item or settings is a feature of works, as with some paintings past Gentile Bellini and others, and a number of 19th-century works. Renaissance Venice had a stage of particular interest in depictions of the Ottoman Empire in painting and prints. Gentile Bellini, who travelled to Constantinople and painted the Sultan, and Vittore Carpaccio were the leading painters. By and then the depictions were more accurate, with men typically dressed all in white. The depiction of Oriental carpets in Renaissance painting sometimes draws from Orientalist interest, merely more often just reflects the prestige these expensive objects had in the menstruation.^[29]

Jean-Étienne Liotard (1702–1789) visited Istanbul and painted numerous pastels of Turkish domestic scenes; he also continued to article of clothing Turkish attire for much of the time when he was dorsum in Europe. The aggressive Scottish 18th-century artist Gavin Hamilton found a solution to the trouble of using modern dress, considered unheroic and inelegant, in history painting by using Middle Eastern settings with Europeans wearing local costume, as travelers were advised to do. His huge James Dawkins and Robert Forest Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra (1758, now Edinburgh) elevates tourism to the heroic, with the 2 travelers wearing what look very like togas. Many travelers had themselves painted in exotic Eastern dress on their return, including Lord Byron, equally did many who had never left Europe, including Madame de Pompadour.^[30] The growing French interest in exotic Oriental luxury and lack of liberty in the 18th century to some extent reflected a pointed analogy with France's own absolute monarchy.^[31] Byron'south poetry was highly influential in introducing Europe to the heady cocktail of Romanticism in exotic Oriental settings which was to dominate 19th century Oriental art.

French Orientalism [edit]

French Orientalist painting was transformed by Napoleon'southward ultimately unsuccessful invasion of Egypt and Syria in 1798–1801, which stimulated nifty public involvement in Egyptology, and was also recorded in subsequent years by Napoleon'south court painters, particularly Antoine-Jean Gros, although the Middle Eastern campaign was non ane on which he accompanied the army. 2 of his most successful paintings, Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa (1804) and Battle of Abukir (1806) focus on the Emperor, every bit he was by and then, only include many Egyptian figures, every bit does the less effective Napoleon at the Battle of the Pyramids (1810). Anne-Louis Girodet de Roussy-Trioson's La Révolte du Caire (1810) was another large and prominent example. A well-illustrated Description de l'Égypte was published by the French Regime in xx volumes between 1809 and 1828, concentrating on antiquities.^[32]

Eugène Delacroix's first neat success, The Massacre at Chios (1824) was painted before he visited Greece or the East, and followed his friend Théodore Géricault'southward The Raft of the Medusa in showing a recent incident in distant parts that had angry public opinion. Greece was still fighting for independence from the Ottomans, and was effectively every bit exotic as the more Virtually Eastern parts of the empire. Delacroix followed upwardly with Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi (1827), commemorating a siege of the previous yr, and The Death of Sardanapalus, inspired by Lord Byron, which although fix in antiquity has been credited with first the mixture of sexual activity, violence, lassitude and exoticism which runs through much French Orientalist painting.^[33] In 1832, Delacroix finally visited what is now Algeria, recently conquered past the French, and Kingdom of morocco, as part of a embassy to the Sultan of Morocco. He was greatly struck by what he saw, comparison the N African way of life to that of the Ancient Romans, and continued to paint subjects from his trip on his return to French republic. Like many afterward Orientalist painters, he was frustrated by the difficulty of sketching women, and many of his scenes featured Jews or warriors on horses. Notwithstanding, he was apparently able to go into the women's quarters or harem of a business firm to sketch what became Women of Algiers; few later harem scenes had this claim to actuality.^[34]

When Ingres, the director of the French Académie de peinture, painted a highly colored vision of a Turkish bath, he made his eroticized Orient publicly acceptable past his diffuse generalizing of the female forms (who might all accept been the same model). More than open sensuality was seen as adequate in the exotic Orient.^[35] This imagery persisted in art into the early 20th century, as evidenced in Henri Matisse's orientalist semi-nudes from his Nice period, and his utilise of Oriental costumes and patterns. Ingres' pupil Théodore Chassériau (1819–1856) had already achieved success with his nude The Toilette of Esther (1841, Louvre) and equestrian portrait of Ali-Ben-Hamet, Caliph of Constantine and Primary of the Haractas, Followed past his Escort (1846) earlier he first visited the East, but in later decades the steamship made travel much easier and increasing numbers of artists traveled to the Middle East and beyond, painting a wide range of Oriental scenes.

In many of these works, they portrayed the Orient as exotic, colorful and sensual, non to say stereotyped. Such works typically full-bodied on Arab, Jewish, and other Semitic cultures, as those were the ones visited past artists as France became more than engaged in North Africa. French artists such as Eugène Delacroix, Jean-Léon Gérôme and Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres painted many works depicting Islamic culture, often including lounging odalisques. They stressed both lassitude and visual spectacle. Other scenes, especially in genre painting, take been seen as either closely comparable to their equivalents prepare in modernistic-day or historical Europe, or every bit besides reflecting an Orientalist mind-ready in the Saidian sense of the term. Gérôme was the precursor, and oftentimes the primary, of a number of French painters in the later part of the century whose works were oftentimes frankly salacious, frequently featuring scenes in harems, public baths and slave auctions (the last 2 also available with classical decor), and responsible, with others, for "the equation of Orientalism with the nude in pornographic mode";^[36] (Gallery, below)

British Orientalism [edit]

Though British political interest in the territories of the unravelling Ottoman Empire was as intense every bit in France, information technology was mostly more discreetly exercised. The origins of British Orientalist 19th-century painting owe more to organized religion than war machine conquest or the search for plausible locations for nude women. The leading British genre painter, Sir David Wilkie was 55 when he travelled to Istanbul and Jerusalem in 1840, dying off Gibraltar during the render voyage. Though not noted as a religious painter, Wilkie made the trip with a Protestant calendar to reform religious painting, as he believed that: "a Martin Luther in painting is every bit much called for as in theology, to sweep abroad the abuses past which our divine pursuit is encumbered", by which he meant traditional Christian iconography. He hoped to discover more accurate settings and decor for Biblical subjects at their original location, though his expiry prevented more than studies being made. Other artists including the Pre-Raphaelite William Holman Hunt and David Roberts (in The Holy Country, Syria, Idumea, Arabia, Arab republic of egypt, and Nubia) had like motivations,^[37] giving an emphasis on realism in British Orientalist art from the start.^[38] The French artist James Tissot also used gimmicky Middle Eastern landscape and decor for Biblical subjects, with footling regard for historical costumes or other fittings.

William Holman Hunt produced a number of major paintings of Biblical subjects drawing on his Heart Eastern travels, improvising variants of gimmicky Arab costume and furnishings to avoid specifically Islamic styles, and as well some landscapes and genre subjects. The biblical subjects included The Scapegoat (1856), The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple (1860), and The Shadow of Death (1871). The Miracle of the Holy Fire (1899) was intended every bit a picturesque satire on the local Eastern Christians, of whom, like almost European visitors, Chase took a very dim view. His A Street Scene in Cairo; The Lantern-Maker's Courting (1854–61) is a rare gimmicky narrative scene, as the young human being feels his fiancé'south face, which he is not immune to see, through her veil, as a Westerner in the background beats his way up the street with his stick.^[39] This a rare intrusion of a clearly contemporary figure into an Orientalist scene; mostly they merits the picturesqueness of the historical painting so popular at the time, without the trouble of researching authentic costumes and settings.

When Gérôme exhibited For Auction; Slaves at Cairo at the Royal Academy in London in 1871, it was "widely constitute offensive", partly because the British involvement in successfully suppressed the slave merchandise in Egypt, but also for cruelty and "representing fleshiness for its own sake".^[40] But Rana Kabbani believes that "French Orientalist painting, as exemplified by the works of Gérôme, may appear more sensual, gaudy, gory and sexually explicit than its British counterpart, but this is a difference of manner not substance ... Similar strains of fascination and repulsion convulsed their artists"^[41] Still, nudity and violence are more evident in British paintings set in the ancient world, and "the iconography of the odalisque ... the Oriental sexual practice slave whose image is offered up to the viewer every bit freely as she herself supposedly was to her principal – is almost entirely French in origin",^[35] though taken upwards with enthusiasm by Italian and other European painters.

John Frederick Lewis, who lived for several years in a traditional mansion in Cairo, painted highly detailed works showing both realistic genre scenes of Centre Eastern life and more idealized scenes in upper form Egyptian interiors with no traces of Western cultural influence yet credible. His careful and seemingly affectionate representation of Islamic compages, effects, screens, and costumes set new standards of realism, which influenced other artists, including Gérôme in his subsequently works. He "never painted a nude", and his married woman modelled for several of his harem scenes,^[42] which, with the rare examples by the classicist painter Lord Leighton, imagine "the harem equally a place of almost English domesticity, ... [where]... women's fully clothed respectability suggests a moral healthiness to become with their natural good looks".^[35]

Other artists concentrated on mural painting, oft of desert scenes, including Richard Dadd and Edward Lear. David Roberts (1796–1864) produced architectural and landscape views, many of antiquities, and published very successful books of lithographs from them.^[43]

Russian Orientalism [edit]

Russian Orientalist art was largely concerned with the areas of Fundamental Asia that Russian federation was conquering during the century, and also in historical painting with the Mongols who had dominated Russia for much of the Heart Ages, who were rarely shown in a practiced lite.^[44] The explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky played a major role in popularising an exotic view of "the Orient" and advocating imperial expansion.^[45]

"The Five" Russian composers were prominent 19th-century Russian composers who worked together to create a distinct national style of classical music. One hallmark of "The Five" composers was their reliance on orientalism.^[46] Many quintessentially "Russian" works were composed in orientalist manner, such as Balakirev'south Islamey, Borodin's Prince Igor and Rimsky-Korsakov'due south Scheherazade.^[46] As leader of "The Five," Balakirev encouraged the utilize of eastern themes and harmonies to set their "Russian" music apart from the German language symphonism of Anton Rubinstein and other Western-oriented composers.^[46]

High german Orientalism [edit]

Edward Said originally wrote that Germany did non have a politically motivated Orientalism because its colonial empire did not expand in the aforementioned areas equally France and U.k.. Said later stated that Deutschland "had in common with Anglo-French and later American Orientalism [...] a kind of intellectual dominance over the Orient," However, Said also wrote that "there was nothing in Deutschland to correspond to the Anglo-French presence in India, the Levant, N Africa. Moreover, the German Orient was almost exclusively a scholarly, or at least a classical, Orient: it was made the field of study of lyrics, fantasies, and fifty-fifty novels, but it was never actual."^[47] Co-ordinate to Suzanne L. Marchand, High german scholars were the "pace-setters" in oriental studies.^[48] Robert Irwin wrote that "until the outbreak of the Second World War, German dominance of Orientalism was practically unchallenged."^[49]

Elsewhere [edit]

Nationalist historical painting in Central Europe and the Balkans dwelt on oppression during the Ottoman Empire period, battles betwixt Ottoman and Christian armies, as well as themes like the Ottoman Regal Harem, although the latter was a less mutual theme than in French depictions.^[50]

The Saidian analysis has not prevented a strong revival of interest in, and collecting of, 19th century Orientalist works since the 1970s, the latter was in large part led by Middle Eastern buyers.^[51]

Pop culture [edit]

Authors and composers are non commonly referred to as "Orientalist" in the mode that artists are, and relatively few specialized in Oriental topics or styles, or are even best known for their works including them. Merely many major figures, from Mozart to Flaubert, have produced pregnant works with Oriental subjects or treatments. Lord Byron with his iv long "Turkish tales" in verse, is one of the most of import writers to make exotic fantasy Oriental settings a meaning theme in the literature of Romanticism. Giuseppe Verdi'south opera Aida (1871) is ready in Egypt every bit portrayed through the content and the visual spectacle. "Aida" depicts a militaristic Egypt'southward tyranny over Ethiopia.^[52]

Irish Orientalism had a particular character, drawing on various behavior about early historical links between Ireland and the East, few of which are now regarded every bit historically correct. The mythical Milesians are ane example of this. The Irish were also conscious of the views of other nations seeing them as comparably astern to the East, and Europe'southward "lawn Orient."^[53]

In music [edit]

In music, Orientalism may exist applied to styles occurring in different periods, such as the alla Turca, used past multiple composers including Mozart and Beethoven.^[54] The American musicologist Richard Taruskin has identified in 19th-century Russian music a strain of Orientalism: "the East as a sign or metaphor, as imaginary geography, every bit historical fiction, as the reduced and totalized other against which we construct our (not less reduced and totalized) sense of ourselves."^[55] Taruskin concedes Russian composers, unlike those in French republic and Germany, felt an "ambivalence" to the theme since "Russia was a contiguous empire in which Europeans, living adjacent with 'orientals', identified (and intermarried) with them far more than in the case of other colonial powers".^[56]

Nonetheless, Taruskin characterizes Orientalism in Romantic Russian music as having melodies "full of close little ornaments and melismas,"^[57] chromatic accompanying lines, drone bass^[58]—characteristics which were used by Glinka, Balakirev, Borodin, Rimsky-Korsakov, Lyapunov, and Rachmaninov. These musical characteristics evoke:^[58]

not just the East, but the seductive East that emasculates, enslaves, renders passive. In a word, it signifies the promise of the experience of nega, a prime number attribute of the orient every bit imagined by the Russians.... In opera and vocal, nega often simply denotes S-E-10 a la russe, desired or accomplished.

Orientalism is too traceable in music that is considered to have furnishings of exoticism, including the Japonisme in Claude Debussy's pianoforte music all the way to the sitar being used in recordings by the Beatles.^[54]

In the United Kingdom, Gustav Holst composed Beni Mora evoking a languid, heady Arabian atmosphere.

Orientalism, in a more army camp manner also found its mode into exotica music in the late 1950s, especially the works of Les Baxter, for case, his limerick "City of Veils."

In literature [edit]

The Romantic movement in literature began in 1785 and ended effectually 1830. The term Romantic references the ideas and culture that writers of the time reflected in their work. During this time, the civilisation and objects of the East began to take a profound effect on Europe. All-encompassing traveling past artists and members of the European elite brought travelogues and sensational tales dorsum to the West creating a nifty interest in all things "foreign." Romantic Orientalism incorporates African and Asian geographic locations, well-known colonial and "native" personalities, folklore, and philosophies to create a literary environment of colonial exploration from a distinctly European worldview. The current trend in analysis of this movement references a belief in this literature every bit a mode to justify European colonial endeavors with the expansion of territory.^[59]

In his novel Salammbô, Gustave Flaubert used ancient Carthage in Northward Africa as a foil to aboriginal Rome. He portrayed its civilisation every bit morally corrupting and suffused with dangerously alluring eroticism. This novel proved hugely influential on later portrayals of aboriginal Semitic cultures.

In motion-picture show [edit]

Said argues that the continuity of Orientalism into the present can exist found in influential images, particularly through the Cinema of the United States, as the West has now grown to include the The states.^[sixty] Many blockbuster characteristic film, such as the Indiana Jones series, The Mummy films, and Disney'south Aladdin film serial demonstrate the imagined geographies of the Eastward.^[sixty] The films unremarkably portray the atomic number 82 heroic characters as beingness from the Western world, while the villains often come from the Eastward.^[60] The representation of the Orient has connected in moving picture, although this representation does non necessarily accept any truth to information technology.

The overly sexualized grapheme of Princess Jasmine in Aladdin is but a continuation of the paintings from the 19th century, where women were represented as erotic, sexualized fantasies.^{[61] [ neutrality is disputed]}

In The Tea House of the August Moon (1956), as argued by Pedro Iacobelli, there are tropes of orientalism. He notes, that the film "tells us more than near the Americans and the American'south prototype of Okinawa rather than most the Okinawan people."^[62] The movie characterizes the Okinawans equally "merry just backward" and "de-politicized," which ignored the existent-life Okinawan political protests over forceful state acquisition by the American war machine at the time.

Kimiko Akita, in Orientalism and the Binary of Fact and Fiction in 'Memoirs of a Geisha', argues that Memoirs of a Geisha (2005) contains orientalist tropes and deep "cultural misrepresentations." She states that Memoirs of a Geisha "reinforces the thought of Japanese culture and geisha as exotic, astern, irrational, muddied, profane, promiscuous, bizarre, and enigmatic."^[63]

In trip the light fantastic toe [edit]

During the Romantic period of the 19th century, ballet adult a preoccupation with the exotic. This exoticism ranged from ballets set in Scotland to those based on ethereal creatures.^{[64] [ citation needed ]} Past the later part of the century, ballets were capturing the presumed essence of the mysterious Eastward. These ballets often included sexual themes and tended to exist based on assumptions of people rather than on physical facts. Orientalism is credible in numerous ballets.

The Orient motivated several major ballets, which have survived since the tardily nineteenth and early on twentieth centuries. Le Corsaire premiered in 1856 at the Paris Opera, with choreography by Joseph Mazilier.^[65] Marius Petipa re-choreographed the ballet for the Maryinsky Ballet in Leningrad, Russia in 1899.^[65] Its complex storyline, loosely based on Lord Byron's poem,^[66] takes place in Turkey and focuses on a love story between a pirate and a beautiful slave girl. Scenes include a bazaar where women are sold to men every bit slaves, and the Pasha's Palace, which features his harem of wives.^[65] In 1877, Marius Petipa choreographed La Bayadère, the love story of an Indian temple dancer and Indian warrior. This ballet was based on Kalidasa'south play Sakuntala.^[66] La Bayadere used vaguely Indian costuming, and incorporated Indian inspired paw gestures into classical ballet. In addition, it included a 'Hindu Dance,' motivated by Kathak, an Indian dance form.^[66] Another ballet, Sheherazade, choreographed past Michel Fokine in 1910 to music by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, is a story involving a shah's wife and her illicit relations with a Gold Slave, originally played past Vaslav Nijinsky.^[66] The ballet'southward controversial fixation on sex includes an orgy in an oriental harem. When the shah discovers the deportment of his numerous wives and their lovers, he orders the deaths of those involved.^[66] Sheherazade was loosely based on folktales of questionable authenticity.

Several bottom-known ballets of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century also show their Orientalism. For instance, in Petipa's The Pharaoh'south Daughter (1862), an Englishman imagines himself, in an opium-induced dream, as an Egyptian boy who wins the dearest of the Pharaoh's daughter, Aspicia.^[66] Aspicia's costume consisted of 'Egyptian' décor on a tutu.^[66] Another ballet, Hippolyte Monplaisir'southward Brahma, which premiered in 1868 in La Scala, Italy,^[67] is a story that involves romantic relations between a slave girl and Brahma, the Hindu god, when he visits earth.^[66] In addition, in 1909, Serge Diagilev included Cléopâtre in the Ballets Russes' repertory. With its theme of sex, this revision of Fokine's Une Nuit d'Egypte combined the "exoticism and grandeur" that audiences of this time craved.^[66]

As one of the pioneers of mod trip the light fantastic toe in America, Ruth St Denis also explored Orientalism in her dancing. Her dances were non authentic; she drew inspiration from photographs, books, and later from museums in Europe.^[66] However, the exoticism of her dances catered to the interests of gild women in America.^[66] She included Radha and The Cobras in her 'Indian' programme in 1906. In improver, she found success in Europe with another Indian-themed ballet, The Nautch in 1908. In 1909, upon her render to America, St Denis created her beginning 'Egyptian' work, Egypta.^[66] Her preference for Orientalism continued, culminating with Ishtar of the Seven Gates in 1923, about a Babylonian goddess.^[66]

While Orientalism in trip the light fantastic toe climaxed in the tardily nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it is still present in modern times. For instance, major ballet companies regularly perform Le Corsaire, La Bayadere, and Sheherazade. Furthermore, Orientalism is besides constitute inside newer versions of ballets. In versions of The Nutcracker, such every bit the 2010 American Ballet Theatre production, the Chinese dance uses an arm position with the arms bent at a ninety-degree angle and the index fingers pointed upwards, while the Arabian dance uses two dimensional bent arm movements. Inspired by ballets of the past, stereotypical 'Oriental' movements and arm positions have developed and remain.

Religion [edit]

An exchange of Western and Eastern ideas almost spirituality adult as the Due west traded with and established colonies in Asia.^[68] The first Western translation of a Sanskrit text appeared in 1785,^[69] marker the growing interest in Indian culture and languages.^[70] Translations of the Upanishads, which Arthur Schopenhauer called "the alleviation of my life", starting time appeared in 1801 and 1802.^{[71] [notation 1]} Early translations likewise appeared in other European languages.^[73] 19th-century transcendentalism was influenced by Asian spirituality, prompting Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) to pioneer the thought of spirituality every bit a singled-out field.^[74]

A major strength in the mutual influence of Eastern and Western spirituality and religiosity was the Theosophical Society,^{[75] [76]} a grouping searching for ancient wisdom from the Due east and spreading Eastern religious ideas in the West.^{[77] [68]} 1 of its salient features was the conventionalities in "Masters of Wisdom",^{[78] [note 2]} "beings, human being or once human, who accept transcended the normal frontiers of knowledge, and who make their wisdom available to others".^[78] The Theosophical Society also spread Western ideas in the East, contributing to its modernisation and a growing nationalism in the Asian colonies.^[68]

The Theosophical Society had a major influence on Buddhist modernism^[68] and Hindu reform movements.^{[76] [68]} Between 1878 and 1882, the Society and the Arya Samaj were united equally the Theosophical Gild of the Arya Samaj.^[79] Helena Blavatsky, forth with H. S. Olcott and Anagarika Dharmapala, was instrumental in the Western transmission and revival of Theravada Buddhism.^{[80] [81] [82]}

Some other major influence was Vivekananda,^{[83] [84]} who popularised his modernised estimation^[85] of Advaita Vedanta during the subsequently 19th and early 20th century in both Bharat and the West,^[84] emphasising anubhava ("personal experience") over scriptural potency.^[86]

Islam [edit]

With the spread of Eastern religious and cultural ideals towards the West, came in with studies and certain illustrations that depicts certain regions and religions under the Western perspective. Many the aspects or views are often turned into the ideas that the West have adopted onto those cultural and religious ideals. One of the more adopted views can be depicted through Western context on Islam and the Middle East. Nether the adopted view of Islam under the Western context, Orientalism falls under the category of the Western perspective of thinking that shifts through social constructs that refers towards representations of the religion or culture in a subjective view point.^[87] The concept of Orientalism dates back to precolonial eras, equally the main European powers acquired and perceived of territory, resources, noesis, and command of the regions in the E.^[87] The term Orientalism, depicts further into the historical context of animosity and misrepresentation into the tendencies of a growing layer of Western inclusion and influence on foreign civilisation and ideals.^[88]

In the religious perspective under Islam, the term Orientalism applies in like pregnant as the outlook from the Western perspective, mainly in the eyes of the Christian majority.^[88] The chief correspondent of the depiction of Oriental perspectives or illustrations on Islam and other Heart Eastern cultures derives from the imperial and colonial influences and powers that attribute to formation of multiple fields of geographical, political, educational, and scientific elements.^[88] The combination of these unlike genres reveal meaning division amid people of those cultures and reinforces the ethics set from the Western perspective.^[88] With Islam, historically scientific discoveries, research, inventions, or ideas that were presented earlier and contributed to many other European breakthroughs are not affiliated with the previous Islamic scientists.^[88] From the exclusion of by contributions and initial works farther lead to narrative of the concept of Orientalism with the passing of time generated a history and directive of presence inside region and religion that historically influences the image of the East.^[87]

Through the recent years, Orientalism has been influenced and shirted to altering representations of diverse forms that all derive from the same meaning.^[87] From the nineteenth century, among the Western perspectives on Orientalism, differed as the split of American and European Orientalism viewed different illustrations.^[87] With mainstream media and popular product reveal many depictions of Oriental cultures and Islamic references to the current event of radicalization for Non-western cultures.^[87] With references and mainstream media often utilized to contribute to an extended agenda nether the construct judgement of alternate motives.^[87] The arroyo with the generalization of the term Orientalism was embedded with under showtime of colonialism as the root of the primary complication of within modernistic societies perspectives of foreign cultures.^[88] Every bit mainstream media depicts illustrations to utilize many instances of discourse and on certain regions mainly amongst the conflict within regions in the Eye E and Africa.^[88] With agenda of influencing views on non-western societies to be deemed non-uniform with differing ideologies and cultures, the elements that nowadays diversion amid Eastern societies and aspects.^[88]

Eastern views of the West and Western views of the Eastward [edit]

The concept of Orientalism has been adopted by scholars in Eastward-Central and Eastern Europe, among them Maria Todorova, Attila Melegh, Tomasz Zarycki, and Dariusz Skórczewski^[89] as an analytical tool for exploring the images of East-Central and Eastern European societies in cultural discourses of the West in the 19th century and during the Soviet domination.

The term "re-orientalism" was used past Lisa Lau and Ana Cristina Mendes^{[90] [91]} to refer to how Eastern cocky-representation is based on western referential points:^[92]

Re-Orientalism differs from Orientalism in its mode of and reasons for referencing the West: while challenging the metanarratives of Orientalism, re-Orientalism sets up culling metanarratives of its own in order to articulate eastern identities, simultaneously deconstructing and reinforcing Orientalism.

Occidentalism [edit]

The term occidentalism is oft used to refer to negative views of the Western world found in Eastern societies, and is founded on the sense of nationalism that spread in reaction to colonialism^[93] (run into Pan-Asianism). Edward Said has been accused of Occidentalizing the westward in his critique of Orientalism; of existence guilty of falsely characterizing the W in the same way that he accuses Western scholars of falsely characterizing the E.^[94] Said essentialized the West by creating a homogenous image of the expanse. Currently, the West consists not only of Europe, but also the United States and Canada, which have become more influential over the years.^[94]

Othering [edit]

The action of othering cultures occurs when groups are labeled as unlike due to characteristics that distinguish them from the perceived norm.^[95] Edward Said, author of the book Orientalism, argued that western powers and influential individuals such every bit social scientists and artists othered "the Orient."^[88] The evolution of ideologies is ofttimes initially embedded in the language, and continues to ripple through the material of gild by taking over the culture, economy and political sphere.^[96] Much of Said'south criticism of Western Orientalism is based on what he describes every bit articularizing trends. These ideologies are present in Asian works past Indian, Chinese, and Japanese writers and artists, in their views of Western culture and tradition. A particularly significant development is the manner in which Orientalism has taken shape in not-Western picture palace, equally for instance in Hindi-language picture palace.

See also [edit]

• Allosemitism
• Arabist
• Black orientalism
• Borealism
• Chinoiserie
• Cultural cribbing
• Dahesh Museum
• Ethnocentrism
• Exoticism
• Hebraist
• Hellenocentrism
• Indomania
• Japonisme
• La belle juive
• List of artistic works with Orientalist influences
• List of Orientalist artists
• Neo-orientalism
• Noble barbarous
• Objectification
• Othering
• Outsider art
• Pizza upshot
• Primitivism
• Racial fetishism
• Romantic racism
• Soviet Orientalist studies in Islam
• Stereotypes of Arabs and Muslims in the United States
• Stereotypes of Jews
• Stereotypes of South Asians
• Turquerie
• World music
• Xenocentrism

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Schopenhauer also called his poodle "Atman".^[72]
2. ^ Run across also Ascended Chief Teachings

References [edit]

1. ^ Tromans, 6
2. ^ Mahmood Mamdani, Practiced Muslim, Bad Muslim: America, the Common cold War, and the Roots of Terrorism, New York: Pantheon, 2004; ISBN 0-375-42285-4; p. 32.
3. ^ Karnadi, Chris (2022-03-30). "Horizon Forbidden West purports to be post-racial — only it's not". Polygon . Retrieved 2022-05-03 .
4. ^ Latin Oriens, Oxford English Dictionary. p. 000.
5. ^ Said, Edward. "Orientalism," New York: Vintage Books, 1979. p. 364.
6. ^ Said, Edward. "Orientalism," New York: Vintage Books, 1979: 357
7. ^ Tromans, twenty
8. ^ Harding, 74
9. ^ Tromans, nineteen
10. ^ Benjamin, R., Orientalist Aesthetics: Art, Colonialism, and French North Africa, 1880-1930, 2003, pp 57 -78
11. ^ Volait, Mercedes (2014). "Centre Eastern Collections of Orientalist Painting at the Turn of the 21st Century: Paradoxical Reversal or Persistent Misunderstanding?" (PDF). In Pouillon, François; Vatin, Jean-Claude (eds.). Later Orientalism: Disquisitional perspectives on Western Agency and Eastern Reappropriations. Leiden Studies in Islam and Social club. Vol. two. pp. 251–271. doi:10.1163/9789004282537_019. ISBN9789004282520.
12. ^ Encyclopedia.com, https://www.encyclopedia.com/literature-and-arts/fine art-and-architecture/art-general/orientalism
13. ^ Notes Taken During a Journeying Though Part of Northern Arabia in 1848. Published past the Royal Geographical Gild in 1851. (Online version.)
14. ^ Narrative of a Journeys From Cairo to Medina and Mecca past Suez, Arabia, Tawila, Al-Jauf, Jubbe, Hail and Nejd, in 1845, Royal Geographical Society, 1854.
15. ^ William R. Mead, M. A. Wallin and the Royal Geographical Society, Studia Orientalia 23, 1958.
16. ^ Macfie, A. L. (2002). Orientalism. London: Longman. p. Ch One. ISBN978-0582423862.
17. ^ Holloway (2006), pp. i–2. "The Orientalism espoused by Warren Hastings, William Jones and the early East India Visitor sought to maintain British domination over the Indian subcontinent through patronage of Hindu and Muslim languages and institutions, rather than through their eclipse by English spoken language and ambitious European acculturation."
18. ^ "Hebraists, Christian". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org . Retrieved 22 October 2017.
19. ^ Tromans, 24
20. ^ Orientalism (1978) Preface, 2003 ed. p. 15.
21. ^ ^{a b} Xypolia, Ilia (2011). "Orientations and Orientalism: The Governor Sir Ronald Storrs". Journal of IslamicJerusalem Studies. 11: 25–43.
22. ^ Said, Edward Due west. (1979). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books. p. 63. ISBN0-394-74067-X.
23. ^ Said, Edward W. (1979). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books. p. lx. ISBN0-394-74067-X.
24. ^ Tromans, 6, 11 (quoted), 23–25
25. ^ Marta Mamet–Michalkiewicz (2011). "Paradise Regained?: The Harem in Fatima Mernissi'due south Dreams of Trespass: Tales of a Harem Girlhood". In Helga Ramsey-Kurz and Geetha Ganapathy-Doré (ed.). Projections of Paradise. pp. 145–146. doi:10.1163/9789401200332_009. ISBN9789401200332.
26. ^ Al-Samarrai, Qasim (2002). "Discussions on Orientalism in Nowadays-Mean solar day Saudi Arabia". In Wiegers, Gerard (ed.). Mod Societies & the Science of Religions: Studies in Honour of Lammert Leertouwer. Numen Volume Series. Vol. 95. pp. 283–301. doi:10.1163/9789004379183_018. ISBN9789004379183. Page 284.
27. ^ van der Oye, David (2010). Russian Orientalism. Yale University Printing.
28. ^ The subject field of Ives
29. ^ Rex and Sylvester, throughout
30. ^ Christine Riding, Travellers and Sitters: The Orientalist Portrait, in Tromans, 48–75
31. ^ Ina Baghdiantz McCabe (15 July 2008). Orientalism in Early Modern France: Eurasian Trade, Exoticism and the Ancien Regime. Berg. p. 134. ISBN978-one-84520-374-0 . Retrieved 31 August 2013.
32. ^ Harding, 69–lxx
33. ^ Nochlin, 294–296; Tromans, 128
34. ^ Harding, 81
35. ^ ^{a b c} Tromans, 135
36. ^ Tromans. 136
37. ^ Tromans, 14 (quoted), 162–165
38. ^ Nochlin, 289, disputing Rosenthal assertion, and insisting that "there must exist some attempt to clarify whose reality we are talking virtually".
39. ^ Tromans, 16–17 and run across index
40. ^ Tromans, 135–136
41. ^ Tromans, 43
42. ^ Tromans, quote 135; 134 on his wife; generally: 22–32, eighty–85, 130–135, and see index
43. ^ Tromans, 102–125, covers mural
44. ^ Schimmelpenninck van der Oye, David (2009-12-01). "Vasilij V. Vereshchagin's Canvases of Central Asian Conquest". Cahiers d'Asie centrale (17/eighteen): 179–209. ISSN 1270-9247.
45. ^ Brower (1994). Imperial Russia and Its Orient--the Renown of Nikolai Przhevalsky.
46. ^ ^{a b c} Figes, Orlando, ''Natasha's Trip the light fantastic toe: A Cultural History of Russia'' (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2002), 391.
47. ^ Jenkins, Jennifer (2004). "German Orientalism: Introduction". Comparative Studies of Southward Asia, Africa and the Middle East. 24 (2): 97–100. doi:x.1215/1089201X-24-2-97. ISSN 1548-226X.
48. ^ Marchand, Suzanne L. (2009). German orientalism in the age of empire : religion, race, and scholarship. Washington, D.C.: German Historical Institute. ISBN978-0-521-51849-9. OCLC 283802855.
49. ^ Irwin, Robert (2001-06-21). "An Countless Progression of Whirlwinds". London Review of Books. Vol. 23, no. 12. ISSN 0260-9592. Retrieved 2021-09-04 .
50. ^ Malečková, Jitka (2020-09-24). The Render of the "Terrible Turk". Brill. pp. 26–69. doi:10.1163/9789004440791_003. ISBN978-90-04-44079-1. S2CID 238091901.
51. ^ Tromans, 7, 21
52. ^ Beard and Gloag 2005, 128
53. ^ Lennon, Joseph. 2004. Irish Orientalism. New York: Syracuse University Printing.
54. ^ ^{a b} Beard and Gloag 2005, 129
55. ^ Taruskin (1997): p. 153
56. ^ Taruskin (1997): p. 158
57. ^ Taruskin (1997): p. 156
58. ^ ^{a b} Taruskin (1997): p. 165
59. ^ "Romantic Orientalism: Overview". The Norton Anthology of English Literature . Retrieved three May 2015.
60. ^ ^{a b c} Precipitous, Joanne. Geographies of Postcolonialism. p. 25.
61. ^ Sharp, Joanne. Geographies of Postcolonialism. p. 24.
62. ^ Iacobelli, Pedro (2011). "Orientalism, Mass Civilisation and the US Administration in Okinawa". ANU Japanese Studies Online (iv): 19–35. hdl:1885/22180. pp. 25-26.
63. ^ Kimiko Akita (2006). "Orientalism and the Binary of Fact and Fiction in Memoirs of a Geisha" (PDF). University of Key Florida.
64. ^ "At What Point Does Appreciation Go Appropriation?". Dance Magazine. 2019-08-nineteen. Retrieved 2020-12-18 .
65. ^ ^{a b c} "Le Corsaire". ABT. Ballet Theatre Foundation, Inc. Archived from the original on 2003-05-06. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
66. ^ ^{a b c d eastward f g h i j yard l m} Au, Susan (1988). Ballet and Modern Dance . Thames & Hudson, Ltd. ISBN9780500202197.
67. ^ Jowitt, Deborah. Time and the Dancing Epitome. p. 55.
68. ^ ^{a b c d due east} McMahan 2008.
69. ^ Renard 2010, p. 176.
70. ^ Renard 2010, p. 177.
71. ^ Renard 2010, p. 177-178.
72. ^ Renard 2010, p. 178.
73. ^ Renard 2010, p. 183-184.
74. ^ Schmidt, Leigh Eric. Restless Souls: The Making of American Spirituality. San Francisco: Harper, 2005. ISBN 0-06-054566-6.
75. ^ Renard 2010, p. 185-188.
76. ^ ^{a b} Sinari 2000.
77. ^ Lavoie 2012.
78. ^ ^{a b} Gilchrist 1996, p. 32.
79. ^ Johnson 1994, p. 107.
80. ^ McMahan 2008, p. 98.
81. ^ Gombrich 1996, p. 185-188.
82. ^ Fields 1992, p. 83-118.
83. ^ Renard 2010, p. 189-193.
84. ^ ^{a b} Michaelson 2009, p. 79-81.
85. ^ Rambachan 1994.
86. ^ Rambachan 1994, p. 1.
87. ^ ^{a b c d eastward f m} Kerboua, Salim (2016). "From Orientalism to Neo-Orientalism: Early and Contemporary Constructions of Islam and the Muslim World". Intellectual Soapbox. 24: 7–34 – via ProQuest.
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93. ^ Lary, Diana (2006). "Edward Said: Orientalism and Occidentalism" (PDF). Journal of the Canadian Historical Association. 17 (2): three–fifteen. doi:10.7202/016587ar.
94. ^ ^{a b} Sharp, Joanne (2008). Geographies of Postcolonialism. London: Sage. p. 25. ISBN978-1-4129-0778-1.
95. ^ Mountz, Alison (2009). "The other". In Gallaher, Carolyn; Dahlman, Carl; Gilmartin, Mary; Mountz, Alison; Shirlow, Peter (eds.). Key Concepts in Political Geography. SAGE. pp. 328–338. doi:10.4135/9781446279496.n35. ISBN9781412946728.
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Farther reading [edit]

Art [edit]

• Alazard, Jean. Fifty'Orient et la peinture française.
• Behdad, Ali. 2013. Photography'due south Orientalism: New Essays on Colonial Representation. Getty Publications. 224 pages.
• Benjamin, Roger. 2003. Orientalist Aesthetics, Art, Colonialism and French N Africa: 1880–1930. University of California Press.
• Peltre, Christine. 1998. Orientalism in Art. New York: Abbeville Publishing Group. ISBN 0-7892-0459-two.
• Rosenthal, Donald A. 1982. Orientalism: The Near East in French Painting, 1800–1880. Rochester, NY: Memorial Art Gallery, University of Rochester.
• Stevens, Mary Anne, ed. 1984. The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse: European Painters in Northward Africa and the Nigh Due east (exhibition catalogue). London: Royal Academy of Arts.

Literature [edit]

• Balagangadhara, Due south. N. 2012. Reconceptualizing India studies. New Delhi: Oxford Academy Press.
• Bessis, Sophie (2003). Western Supremacy: The Triumph of an Thought?. Zed Books. ISBN 9781842772195 ISBN 1842772198
• Bitar, Amer (2020). Bedouin Visual Leadership in the Middle East: The Ability of Aesthetics and Practical Implications. Springer Nature. ISBN9783030573973.
• Clarke, J. J. 1997. "Oriental Enlightenment." London: Routledge.
• Chatterjee, Indrani. 1999. "Gender, Slavery and Law in Colonial Bharat." Oxford University Press.
• Frank, Andre Gunder. 1998. "ReOrient: Global Economic system in the Asian Age." University of California Press.
• Halliday, Fred. 1993. "'Orientalism' and its critics." British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies xx(2):145–63. doi:10.1080/13530199308705577.
• Inden, Ronald. 2000. "Imagining Republic of india." Indiana University Press.
• Irwin, Robert. 2006. For lust of knowing: The Orientalists and their enemies. London: Penguin/Allen Lane. ISBN 0-7139-9415-0.
• Isin, Engin, ed. 2015. Citizenship After Orientalism: Transforming Political Theory. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Kabbani, Rana. 1994. Imperial Fictions: Europe's Myths of Orient. London: Pandora Press. ISBN 0-04-440911-seven.
• Van der Pijl, Kees (2014). The Discipline of Western Supremacy: Modes of Foreign Relations and Political Economy, Volume III, Pluto Press, ISBN 9780745323183
• King, Richard. 1999. "Orientalism and Religion." Routledge.
• Kontje, Todd. 2004. German Orientalisms. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-11392-5.
• Lach, Donald, and Edwin Van Kley. 1993. "Asia in the Making of Europe. Book III." University of Chicago Press.
• Lindqvist, Sven (1996). Exterminate all the brutes. New Press, New York. ISBN 9781565843592
• Little, Douglas. 2002. American Orientalism: The U.s.a. and the Middle East Since 1945. (2nd ed.) ISBN i-86064-889-four.
• Lowe, Lisa. 1992. Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8195-6.
• Macfie, Alexander Lyon. 2002. Orientalism. White Plains, NY: Longman. ISBN 0-582-42386-iv.
• MacKenzie, John. 1995. Orientalism: History, theory and the arts. Manchester: Manchester Academy Press. ISBN 0-7190-4578-ix.
• McEvilley, Thomas. 2002. "The Shape of Ancient Thought: Comparative Studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies." New York: Allworth Press.
• Murti, Kamakshi P. 2001. India: The Seductive and Seduced "Other" of German Orientalism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Printing. ISBN 0-313-30857-8.
• Oueijan, Naji. 1996. The Progress of an Epitome: The East in English Literature. New York: Peter Lang Publishers.
• Skórczewski, Dariusz. 2020. Polish Literature and National Identity: A Postcolonial Perspective. Rochester: University of Rochester Press. ISBN 9781580469784.
• Steiner, Evgeny, ed. 2012. Orientalism/Occidentalism: Languages of Cultures vs. Languages of Description. Moscow: Sovpadenie. [English & Russian]. ISBN 978-5-903060-75-7.

External links [edit]

Look up orientalism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• The Orientalist Painters
• Arab world in fine art
• Arab women in art

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientalism

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